Data Exposure

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Design Hypothesis 2: Personal informatics tools that expose users to peers’ data will help the users to set behavioral goals based on that data. Achieving or missing those goals can heighten or lower the users’ self-efficacy in the health behavior

Health data can motivate people to change their behavior on both personal and social levels.

At the personal level, having access to our own data encourages self-monitoring and goal-setting. As a result, we become motivated to act on those goals. Achieving goals boosts confidence (self-efficacy) and positive feelings, while missing goals can lower confidence. However, people often struggle to know what an adequate goal is, especially since every individual is different.

At the social level, seeing data from peers can help users get a sense of what reasonable goals look like. For example, parents who saw their neighbors’ fitness data on a neighborhood map learned what goals they should strive for. This is a social modeling of adequate goals.

We want to stress that showing users peer data needs to be handled carefully. According to Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), people who already feel confident (self-efficacious) are naturally motivated to improve, especially when the behavior matches their goals and values. But for users who aren’t confident yet, seeing peer data could actually be discouraging.

That’s why personal health tools should first help users build self-efficacy — for example, through gradual goal-setting, self-monitoring tools, and clear instructions.

Another challenge is when users are exposed to peers who are doing much better. This can lead to unrealistic expectations, making users feel less confident or pushing them to set goals that are too high. When they fail to meet those goals, their confidence can drop even further. On the other hand, if users only see peers doing poorly, it could lower their idea of what “good enough” behavior looks like.

To avoid these problems, we suggest showing users’ peers’ data carefully, encouraging them to set slightly higher goals compared to peers who have similar abilities. This approach helps users build confidence step-by-step and reassures them that it’s normal to face challenges.

Having similar peers is important. People benefit most when they see others who are like them.

Process

A chart that shows Data Exposure conveys Adequacy Information that enhances Self-Efficacy. Self-Efficacy supports Action.

Exposure to peers’ data supports self-efficacy by providing adequacy information. The dotted line shows the hypothesized relationship.

Design Recommendations

Recommendation 2.1. Peer data comparisons should be focused on similar peers
Seeing data from peers with similar backgrounds helps users stay motivated and set higher, more realistic goals (Saksono et al., 2021). SCT also says that people learn better from peers who are similar to them.

Recommendation 2.2. Mitigate the potential negative effect of upward comparisons by portraying similar peers as an informational source
Upward comparisons — when users compare themselves to higher-performing peers — can lower confidence and motivation if done too often. People who constantly compare upward may feel envy, regret, or inadequacy. Since research shows that people naturally tend to compare upward, it’s important that personal health tools don’t overly focus on social comparison.

Instead, peer data should be framed as an informational resource to help users set realistic, step-by-step goals. Showing users peers with slightly higher ability can encourage healthy progress without hurting their self-efficacy. Studies also show users prefer comparing themselves to peers with similar life experiences and habits, making the comparisons more meaningful and motivating.

Recommendation 2.3. Mitigate the potential negative effect of downward comparisons by providing a progressive behavioral norm
Downward comparison — when users compare themselves to peers doing worse — can be used to boost self-enhancement, especially after missing a goal. It reminds users that healthy behaviors are challenging for many people. However, if not handled carefully, it can lower users’ sense of what counts as good enough.

To prevent this, downward comparisons should be paired with progressive goal-setting, like showing recommended health targets or encouraging users to aim slightly higher by comparing to slightly better-performing peers.

Recommendation 2.4. Data should have immediate meaningfulness
According to SCT, people are more motivated when they see quick, positive results from their actions. If users don’t value the short-term benefits, their data won’t feel meaningful. Personal health tools should show how small, short-term outcomes connect to users’ bigger, long-term goals and aspirations.

Data Exposure

Process

Design Recommendations

Further Reading